Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita refers to a group of rare congenital disorders characterized by multiple joint contractures present at birth. These disorders result from limitation of joint movement in utero. Intelligence may be normal or impaired depending on the underlying etiology. Diagnosis is clinical. Treatment includes joint manipulation and casting and sometimes surgery.
(See also Overview of Congenital Musculoskeletal Anomalies.)
Arthrogryposis is not a specific diagnosis but rather a clinical finding of congenital contractures; these may be present in > 300 different disorders. Prevalence was 8.5/100,000 live births and perinatal mortality was 32.5% in a multinational database study (1). Based on this high risk of adverse outcomes, establishing a specific diagnosis is important for prognosis and genetic counseling.
There are 2 major types of arthrogryposis multiplex congenita (AMC), which account for ≥ 50% of patients (2):
Amyoplasia (classic arthrogryposis): Multiple symmetric contractures occur in the limbs. Affected muscles are hypoplastic and have fibrous and fatty degeneration. Usually intelligence is normal. Approximately 10% of patients have abdominal abnormalities (eg, gastroschisis, bowel atresia) due to a lack of muscle formation. Nearly all cases are sporadic.
Distal arthrogryposis: The hands and feet are involved, but the large joints are typically spared. Distal arthrogryposes are a heterogeneous group of disorders, many of which are associated with a specific gene defect in one of a number of genes that encode components of the contractile apparatus. Many distal arthrogryposes are transmitted as autosomal dominant disorders, but X-linked mutations are also known.
In a study of 125 affected people, 43% had amyoplasia, 27% had distal arthrogryposis, and 30% had other forms (3).
General references
1. Hoff JM, Loane M, Gilhus NE, Rasmussen S, Daltveit AK. Arthrogryposis multiplexa congenita: an epidemiologic study of nearly 9 million births in 24 EUROCAT registers. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2011;159(2):347-350. doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2011.09.027
2. Hall JG, Kimber E, van Bosse HJP. Genetics and Classifications. J Pediatr Orthop. 2017;37 Suppl 1:S4-S8. doi:10.1097/BPO.0000000000000997
3. Le Tanno P, Latypova X, Rendu J, et al. Diagnostic workup in children with arthrogryposis: Description of practices from a single reference centre, comparison with literature and suggestion of recommendations. J Med Genet. 2023;60(1):13-24. doi:10.1136/jmedgenet-2021-107823
Etiology of Arthrogryposis Multiplex Congenita
Many pathologic processes that cause immobilization of a fetus' limbs during or shortly after the embryonic formation of joints may result in AMC. AMC occurs when embryofetal neuromuscular function and development are impaired.
Any condition that impairs in utero movement for > 3 weeks can result in AMC. Causes may involve
Physical limitation of movement (eg, due to uterine malformations, multiple gestations, or oligohydramnios) causing fetal akinesia/hypokinesia syndrome (Pena-Shokeir syndrome), frequently associated with pulmonary hypoplasia
Maternal disorders (eg, multiple sclerosis, impaired uterine vascularity)
Genetic disorders affecting the fetus (eg, neuropathies; myopathies, including muscular dystrophies; connective tissue disorders; impaired fetal vascularity; anterior horn cell disease)
More than 400 genes have been linked to AMC (1).
Etiology reference
1. Dieterich K, Kimber E, Hall JG. Central nervous system involvement in arthrogryposis multiplex congenita: Overview of causes, diagnosis, and care. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2019;181(3):345-353. doi:10.1002/ajmg.c.31732
Symptoms and Signs of Arthrogryposis Multiplex Congenita
Musculoskeletal deformities are prominent at birth. AMC is not progressive; however, the condition that causes it (eg, muscular dystrophy) may be.
Affected joints are contracted in flexion or extension. In the classic manifestations of AMC, shoulders are sloped, adducted, and internally rotated, the elbows are extended, and the wrists and digits are flexed. Hips may be dislocated and are usually slightly flexed. Knees are extended; feet are often in the equinovarus position. Leg muscles are usually hypoplastic, and limbs tend to be tubular and featureless. Soft-tissue webbing sometimes occurs over ventral aspects of the flexed joints. The spine may be scoliotic. Except for slenderness of the long bones, the skeleton appears normal on radiographs.
Physical disabilities may be severe. Some children also have primary central nervous system dysfunction, which may be associated with intellectual disability (1, 2).
Endotracheal intubation during surgery may be difficult because children may have small, immobile jaws.
Other anomalies that rarely accompany arthrogryposis include microcephaly, cleft palate, cryptorchidism, and cardiac and urinary tract abnormalities; these findings raise suspicion for an underlying chromosomal defect or genetic syndrome.
Symptoms and signs references
1. Dieterich K, Kimber E, Hall JG. Central nervous system involvement in arthrogryposis multiplex congenita: Overview of causes, diagnosis, and care. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2019;181(3):345-353. doi:10.1002/ajmg.c.31732
2. Dahan-Oliel N, Cachecho S, Barnes D, et al. International multidisciplinary collaboration toward an annotated definition of arthrogryposis multiplex congenita. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2019;181(3):288-299. doi:10.1002/ajmg.c.31721
Diagnosis of Arthrogryposis Multiplex Congenita
Prenatal ultrasound
History and physical examination
Genetic testing
Electromyography and muscle biopsy
Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita may be detected with prenatal ultrasound (in one study, 37% of cases were detected antenatally on ultrasound) (1). Common ultrasound findings include clubfoot, clenched hands, decreased fetal movement, elbow contractures, and knee contractures.
If a newborn has multiple contractures, the initial evaluation should determine whether the condition is amyoplasia, distal arthrogryposis, or another syndrome where multiple contractures are associated with unrelated congenital anomalies and/or metabolic disorders. When available, a clinical geneticist should coordinate the assessment and management; typically, health care professionals from many specialties are involved. A syndromic form of AMC is suspected when developmental delays and/or other congenital anomalies are present, and such patients should be evaluated for central nervous system disorders and monitored for progressive neurologic symptoms.
Evaluation should also include a thorough assessment for associated physical, chromosomal, and genetic abnormalities. Specific disorders to be sought include Freeman-Sheldon syndrome, Holt-Oram syndrome, Larsen syndrome, Miller syndrome, multiple pterygium syndrome, and DiGeorge syndrome (22q11 deletion syndrome). Testing may include chromosomal microarray analysis or specific gene tests that are done individually or as a standard panel (2).
Combining a clinical evaluation with an AMC-specific gene panel test done by using next-generation sequencing technology in the newborn may allow for an early diagnosis and improved health outcomes. These approaches can establish a definitive etiology in 66% of cases (3).
Whole exome sequencing may be considered when other tests do not yield a definitive diagnosis, especially in familial cases (4).
Electromyography and muscle biopsy are useful to diagnose neuropathic and myopathic disorders. In classic AMC, muscle biopsy typically shows amyoplasia, with fatty and fibrous replacement of tissues.
Diagnosis references
1. Lemin S, van Bosse HJP, Hutka L, Soberdash S, Patibandla J. Prenatal diagnosis (or lack thereof) of arthrogryposis multiplex congenita and its impact on the perinatal experience of parents: A retrospective survey. Prenat Diagn. 2024;44(5):614-622. doi:10.1002/pd.6569
2. Todd EJ, Yau KS, Ong R, et al. Next generation sequencing in a large cohort of patients presenting with neuromuscular disease before or at birth. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2015:10:148. doi:10.1186/s13023-015-0364-0
3. Pollazzon M, Caraffi SG, Faccioli S, et al. Clinical and genetic findings in a series of eight families with arthrogryposis. Genes (Basel). 2022;13(1):29. doi:10.3390/genes13010029
4. Hunter JM, Ahearn ME, Balak CD, et al. Novel pathogenic variants and genes for myopathies identified by whole exome sequencing. Mol Genet Genomic Med. 2015;3(4):283–301. doi:10.1002/mgg3.142
Treatment of Arthrogryposis Multiplex Congenita
Joint manipulation and casting
Sometimes surgery
Early orthopedic and physical therapy evaluations are indicated. Joint manipulation and casting during the first few months of life may produce considerable improvement. Orthotics may help.
Surgery may be needed later to align the angle of ankylosis, but mobility is rarely enhanced. Muscle transfers (eg, surgically moving the triceps so that it can flex the elbow) may improve function.
Many children do remarkably well; two-thirds are ambulatory after treatment (1).
Treatment reference
1. Hansen-Jaumard D, Elfassy C, Montpetit K, Ghalimah B, Hamdy R, Dahan-Oliel N. A review of the orthopedic interventions and functional outcomes among a cohort of 114 children with arthrogryposis multiplex congenita. J Pediatr Rehabil Med. 2020;13(3):263-271. doi:10.3233/PRM-190657
