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MSD Manual
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HEALTH TOPICS
HEALTHY LIVING
SYMPTOMS
EMERGENCIES
RESOURCES
COMMENTARY
ABOUT US
HEALTH TOPICS
HEALTHY LIVING
SYMPTOMS
EMERGENCIES
RESOURCES
COMMENTARY
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Hormonal and Metabolic Disorders
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Hormonal and Metabolic Disorders
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Biology of the Endocrine System
Endocrine Glands
Endocrine Function
Endocrine Controls
Endocrine Disorders
Effects of Aging on the Endocrine System
Acid-Base Balance
Overview of Acid-Base Balance
Control of Acid-Base Balance
Role of the lungs
Role of the kidneys
Buffer systems
Types of Acid-Base Disorders
Types of acidosis and alkalosis
Compensation for acid-base disorders
Acidosis
Blood pH
Causes
Metabolic acidosis
Respiratory acidosis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Alkalosis
Blood pH
Causes
Metabolic alkalosis
Respiratory alkalosis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Adrenal Gland Disorders
Overview of the Adrenal Glands
Adrenal disorders
Adrenal Insufficiency
Adrenal hormones
Primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison disease)
Secondary adrenal insufficiency
Symptoms
Adrenal crisis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Cushing Syndrome
Taking corticosteroids
Cushing disease
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hyperaldosteronism
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Nonfunctional Adrenal Masses
Pheochromocytoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Virilization
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Amyloidosis
Amyloidosis
Causes
Forms of Amyloidosis
Systemic amyloidosis
Localized amyloidosis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors
Overview of Gastrointestinal and Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumors
Treatment
Gastrinoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prognosis
Glucagonoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Insulinoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Vipoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Carcinoid Syndrome due to Neuroendocrine Tumors
Symptoms
Carcinoid syndrome
Diagnosis
Locating the tumor
Treatment
Symptom control
Surgery and other treatments
Cholesterol Disorders
Overview of Cholesterol and Lipid Disorders
Complications of abnormal lipid levels
Measuring lipid levels
Dyslipidemia
Causes
Primary (hereditary) dyslipidemia
Familial combined hyperlipidemia
Familial dysbetalipoproteinemia
Familial hypercholesterolemia
Familial hypertriglyceridemia
Hypoalphalipoproteinemia
Lipoprotein lipase deficiency and apolipoprotein CII deficiency
Secondary dyslipidemia
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Screening
Treatment
Lipid-lowering diet
Lipid-lowering drugs
Procedures to reduce cholesterol
Treating causes of elevated cholesterol
Monitoring treatment
More Information
Elevated HDL Cholesterol
Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) deficiency
Familial hyperalphalipoproteinemia
Hypolipidemia
Abetalipoproteinemia
Chylomicron retention disease (Anderson disease)
Hypobetalipoproteinemia
Diabetes Mellitus (DM) and Disorders of Blood Sugar Metabolism
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
Blood sugar
Insulin
Types of Diabetes
Prediabetes
Type 1 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes
Symptoms
Type 1 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes
Complications of diabetes
Diagnosis
Blood glucose measurement
Hemoglobin A1C
Oral glucose tolerance test
Screening for Diabetes
Screening for type 1 diabetes
Screening for type 2 diabetes
Treatment
General treatment of diabetes
Medication treatment of diabetes
Pancreas transplantation
People who are frail or have medical problems
People with difficulty maintaining blood glucose levels
Monitoring Diabetes Treatment
Diabetes treatment goals
Monitoring blood glucose levels
Hemoglobin A1C
Fructosamine
Urine glucose
Prevention
Type 1 diabetes
Type 2 diabetes
More Information
Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
Causes of Diabetes Complications
Types of Diabetes Complications
Blood vessel complications in diabetes
Infections in diabetes
Eye problems in diabetes
Liver damage in diabetes
Kidney damage in diabetes
Nerve damage in diabetes
Foot problems in diabetes
Monitoring and Preventing Diabetes Complications
Prevention of hypoglycemia
More Information
Medication Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus
Insulin Replacement Therapy
Insulin forms
Choice of insulin type and dose
Hypoglycemia
Insulin antibodies
Allergic reaction to insulin
Skin reactions to insulin
Oral Antihyperglycemic Medications
Injectable Antihyperglycemic Medications
Disease-Modifying Medication
Other Medications Given to People With Diabetes
More Information
Alcoholic Ketoacidosis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
More Information
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State (HHS)
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hypoglycemia
Causes
Medications
Fasting hypoglycemia
Reaction to eating
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Immediate treatment of hypoglycemia
Treatment of the cause of hypoglycemia
Electrolyte Balance
Overview of Electrolytes
Overview of Sodium's Role in the Body
Controlling blood volume
Maintaining fluid and sodium balance in older adults
Hypernatremia (High Level of Sodium in the Blood)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hyponatremia (Low Level of Sodium in the Blood)
Causes
Role of vasopressin
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Syndrome of Inappropriate Secretion of Antidiuretic Hormone (SIADH)
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Overview of Potassium's Role in the Body
More Information
Hyperkalemia (High Level of Potassium in the Blood)
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Mild hyperkalemia
Moderate to severe hyperkalemia
Hypokalemia (Low Level of Potassium in the Blood)
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Overview of Calcium's Role in the Body
More Information
Hypercalcemia (High Level of Calcium in the Blood)
Causes
Hyperparathyroidism
Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hypocalcemia (Low Level of Calcium in the Blood)
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Overview of Magnesium's Role in the Body
More Information
Hypermagnesemia (High Level of Magnesium in the Blood)
Treatment
Hypomagnesemia (Low Level of Magnesium in the Blood)
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Overview of Phosphate's Role in the Body
More Information
Hyperphosphatemia (High Level of Phosphate in the Blood)
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hypophosphatemia (Low Level of Phosphate in the Blood)
Acute hypophosphatemia
Chronic hypophosphatemia
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Syndromes
Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Syndromes (MEN)
Types
MEN type 1
MEN type 2A
MEN type 2B
MEN type 4
Diagnosis
Treatment
Parathyroid Disorders
Overview of Parathyroid Function
Parathyroid hormone function
Hyperparathyroidism
Primary hyperparathyroidism
Secondary hyperparathyroidism
Tertiary hyperparathyroidism
Symptoms
Complications
Diagnosis
Treatment
Surgery
Hyperparathyroidism in kidney failure
Hypoparathyroidism
Postoperative hypoparathyroidism
Inherited hypoparathyroidism
Pseudohypoparathyroidism
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Parathyroid Tumors
Parathyroid Adenoma
Parathyroid Cancer
Pituitary Gland Disorders
Overview of the Pituitary Gland
Anterior lobe hormones
Posterior lobe hormones
Pituitary gland malfunction
Arginine
Vasopressin
Deficiency (Central Diabetes Insipidus)
Causes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Empty Sella Syndrome
Enlargement of the Pituitary Gland
Prolactinoma
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Gigantism and Acromegaly
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Surgery
Medications
Radiation therapy
Hypopituitarism
Causes
Causes affecting primarily the pituitary
Causes affecting primarily the hypothalamus
Symptoms
Growth hormone deficiency
Deficiency of gonadotropins (follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone deficiency
Adrenocorticotropic hormone deficiency
Prolactin deficiency
Hypothalamus deficiencies
Pituitary apoplexy
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment of cause
Hormone replacement
Polyglandular Deficiency Syndromes
Polyglandular Deficiency Syndromes
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Drug-Induced Autoimmune Endocrine Disorders
IPEX Syndrome
POEMS Syndrome
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
The Porphyrias
Overview of Porphyrias
Classification
Acute porphyrias
Cutaneous porphyrias
Diagnosis
Blood or urine tests
Secondary porphyrinuria
Screening
More Information
Acute Intermittent Porphyria
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment of acute attacks
Other treatment
Prevention of Acute Attacks
More Information
Erythropoietic Protoporphyria and X-Linked Protoporphyria
Erythropoietic protoporphyria
X-linked protoporphyria
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention of Attacks
More Information
Porphyria Cutanea Tarda
Pseudoporphyria
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Phlebotomy
Medications to increase porphyrin excretion
Medications to treat chronic hepatitis C
More Information
Thyroid Gland Disorders
Overview of the Thyroid Gland
Thyroid hormones
How the body adjusts thyroid hormones
Diagnostic Tests
Thyroid function blood tests
Thyroid ultrasound
Other thyroid tests
Screening for thyroid disorders
Hashimoto Thyroiditis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Hyperthyroidism
Causes
Symptoms
Graves disease
Thyroid storm
Diagnosis
Treatment
Treatment with radioactive iodine
Treatment with medications
Other treatments
Hypothyroidism
Causes
Symptoms
Myxedema coma
Diagnosis
Treatment
Silent Lymphocytic Thyroiditis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Simple Nontoxic Goiter
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Subacute Thyroiditis
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Thyroid Cancer
Thyroid nodules
Types of Thyroid Cancer
Papillary thyroid cancer
Follicular thyroid cancer
Oncocytic thyroid carcinoma
Anaplastic thyroid cancer
Medullary thyroid cancer
Water Balance
About Body Water
Maintaining water balance
Dehydration
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Overhydration
Symptoms
Diagnosis
Treatment
