How To Treat Posterior Epistaxis With a Balloon

• Epistaxis from a suspected posterior source

Absolute contraindications

• Possible or identified skull base fracture

• Significant maxillofacial or nasal bone trauma

• Uncontrolled airway or hemodynamic instability

Procedures described here are intended for spontaneous posterior epistaxis. Epistaxis in patients with significant facial trauma should be managed by a specialist.

Relative contraindications

• Severe nasal septal deviation toward the bleeding side (makes it difficult to insert balloon device)

• Injury (eg, pressure necrosis)

• Migration of the nasal packing and aspiration into the airway or airway compromise

• Infections such as sinusitis, otitis media, or rarely toxic shock syndrome

• Penetration of the catheter through the skull base and into the brain parenchyma, though this is unlikely in the absence of preexisting skull base trauma

• Dysphagia

• Otitis media secondary to eustachian tube obstruction

• Necrosis of the nasal ala

• Sometimes hypoxemia, particularly if patients are also sedated

• Activation of the trigemino-cardiac reflex leading to cardiac arrhythmia and even cardiac arrest*

* Such cardiac complications have been reported in the literature, although this remains controversial.

• Gloves, mask, and gown

• Gown or drapes for patient

• Cardiac monitor, pulse oximeter

• IV setup: 18-gauge (or larger) angiocatheter and 1 L isotonic crystalloid solution (eg, 0.9% saline)

• Sterile gauze sponges

• Emesis basin

• Suction source and Frazier-tip suction catheter

• Chair with headrest or ear, nose, and throat (ENT) specialist's chair

• Light source and head mirror or headlamp with adjustable narrow beam

• Nasal speculum

• Tongue depressors

• Bayonet forceps

• 12 to 16 French inflatable balloon (eg, Foley) catheter or commercial epistaxis balloon (single or dual-balloon)

• Cotton pledgets or swabs

• Sometimes supplies and equipment for anterior nasal packing using a gauze strip

• Initiate treatment for any hypovolemia or shock before treating epistaxis.

• Ask about use of anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.

• Check complete blood count (CBC), prothrombin time (PT), and partial thromboplastin time (PTT) if there are symptoms or signs of a bleeding disorder or patient has severe or recurrent epistaxis.

If posterior packing fails to control nasal hemorrhage, invasive methods done by specialists may be needed:

• Sphenopalatine artery (SPA) ligation, typically done using a transnasal endoscopic approach; success rates exceed 85% (1)

• Endovascular SPA embolization; reported success rate 88% (2).

Endoscopic SPA ligation is done by an otolaryngologist and has a lower risk of major complications (eg, stroke, blindness) than endovascular SPA embolization and may be more appropriate for patients who can safely tolerate general anesthesia or if the embolization procedure is not readily available.

Endovascular SPA embolization is done by an interventional radiologist under local anesthesia and may be better for patients with multiple comorbidities that preclude safe general anesthesia, for those on anticoagulant therapy, and for patients who present with bleeding after previously having had endoscopic SPA ligation.

• Severe or intractable posterior epistaxis often stems from the sphenopalatine artery or its proximal branches.

• The patient should sit upright in the sniffing position with head extended, preferably in an ENT specialist's chair. The patient's occiput should be supported to prevent sudden backward movement. The patient's nose should be level with the physician's eyes.

• The patient should hold an emesis basin to collect any continued bleeding or emesis of swallowed blood.

Initial steps:

• Start IV and send any laboratory studies needed.

• Place patient on cardiac monitor and pulse oximeter.

• Have the patient blow the nose to remove clots, or suction the nasal passageway gently.

• Leave the topical drugs in place for 10 to 15 minutes to stop or reduce the bleeding, provide anesthesia, and reduce mucosal swelling.

• Insert a nasal speculum with your index finger resting against the patient's nose or cheek and the handle parallel to the floor (so the blades open vertically).

• Slowly open the speculum and examine the nose using a bright headlamp or head mirror, which leaves one hand free to manipulate suction or an instrument.

• If no bleeding site is visible in the anterior nose, use a tongue depressor and look into the oropharynx. Continued bleeding suggests a posterior source.

Place balloon catheter to tamponade active posterior bleeding:

• Insert the balloon catheter into the nose, and gently advance it parallel to the floor of the nasal cavity. Advance the catheter until the tip can be seen in the oropharynx when looking through the mouth.

• Follow inflation instructions for any commercial epistaxis balloon. If using a Foley catheter, partially inflate the balloon with 5 to 7 mL of water. Gently pull the catheter anteriorly until it is firmly seated in the posterior nasal cavity. Then slowly add another 5 to 7 mL of water.

• If pain or inferior displacement of the soft palate occurs, deflate the balloon until the pain resolves or the soft palate is no longer displaced.

• While maintaining traction on the catheter, place anterior nasal packing of layered petrolatum gauze.

• Consider packing the contralateral anterior nasal cavity to avoid septal deviation.

• Wrap a piece of gauze around the catheter at the naris to protect the nasal ala and place a clamp on the catheter to prevent the balloon from sliding back out of the posterior nasal cavity.

• If using a dual-balloon catheter, first inflate the posterior balloon, using the same general technique as for the single balloon catheter. Then inflate the anterior balloon (typically with 30 mL). Anterior nasal packing with layered gauze is unnecessary when using a dual-balloon catheter.

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• Admit all patients with posterior balloon packing to a monitored unit (for cardiac dysrhythmias and careful airway monitoring for accidentally dislodged ballon/packing) . Manage hypoxemia as required.

• sinusitis and otitis media.

• Deflate the balloon and remove the catheter after 48 to 72 hours.

• Do not open the nasal speculum laterally or use in an unsupported manner. (Brace a finger of the hand holding the speculum on the patient's cheek or nose.)

• Overfilling the catheter balloon can cause significant pain.

• Elevating the patient's chair to eye height is easier on the practitioner's back than bending down.

• Always consult an otolaryngologist after placement of a posterior nasal pack to ensure follow-up.

• After placement of the posterior pack, look through the mouth to make sure that there is no further bleeding down the throat. If there is bleeding, put more fluid into the catheter balloon. If this fails to control bleeding, consult an otolaryngologist immediately.

1. 1. Rudmik L, Smith TL: Management of intractable spontaneous epistaxis. Am J Rhinol Allergy 26(1):55-60, 2012. doi:10.2500/ajra.2012.26.3696

2. 2. Christensen NP, Smith DS, Barnwell SL, et al: Arterial embolization in the management of posterior epistaxis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 133:748-753, 2005. doi: 10.1016/j.otohns.2005.07.041